History

Toronto is an incredibly diverse city, which adds to the versatility and vibrancy of its business sector. To fully understand the diversification of Toronto, the history of Chinatown must not be overlooked. The story behind the origins of the iconic Toronto neighbourhood reveals the discrimination Chinese newcomers faced and their contributions to the city’s economy. Downtown Chinatown, also known as Chinatown West, is located at Spadina Avenue and Dundas Street West. Within Downtown Chinatown are numerous family-run businesses, including restaurants, grocery markets, laundromats, pharmacies and barber shops. According to the Toronto Chinatown Business Improvement Area (BIA), 50 per cent of Chinatown’s businesses are deemed essential. However, other residents and political figures did not always appreciate Chinatown businesses. Despite the hard work of Chinese individuals, they faced discrimination after the Canadian Pacific Railway was completed in British Columbia in 1885. While this led to Chinese individuals migrating from British Columbia to Toronto,  some Chinese individuals were already establishing their businesses in Toronto during this time. Sam Ching’s laundry business, which opened in 1887, was the first business in Toronto’s Chinatown and one of only 95 laundry shops in the city. However, since Chinese-owned laundry businesses represented 75 per cent of those in Toronto, the Laundry Association, which was made up of white business owners, attempted to shut down these shops by claiming they were unhygienic. This started a trend of white Canadians using racial discrimination to destroy Chinatown businesses due to resentment. The Laundry Association utilized media, including the Toronto Star, to make false claims about Chinese-owned laundry businesses, such as that they used working boards for bed frames and customers’ soiled linen for bed sheets. As a result, City Hall implemented a bylaw that forced laundry businesses to pay a $50 licensing fee in 1902. Although this bylaw applied to all laundry businesses, it targeted Chinese business owners since they owned most of Toronto’s laundry establishments at the time. Next, the city targeted Chinese restaurants, laundries and factories in Chinatown and women hoping to work in these businesses. In 1914, Toronto passed a law prohibiting Chinese establishments from hiring white women. At the time, Chinatown West was largely made up of Chinese men since the rest of their families often remained in China. With this in mind, the city also used racial discrimination to justify that Chinese men were amoral and evil towards innocent young women. Canadians were made to believe they had to protect themselves from Chinese men,  which hindered Chinatown businesses. Despite this, restaurants continued to be opened in Chinatown. According to The Canadian Encyclopedia, there were 202 restaurants in and outside of Chinatown by 1923. They represented comfortable, safe spaces for Chinese labourers in the area. Chinatown also became a prominent business sector filled with grocery stores, barber shops and cafés. However, Chinese individuals still had to endure head tax, an explicitly discriminatory fee assigned to any Chinese individual that wished to enter Canada. It occurred between 1885 and 1923 and explained why many Chinese individuals in Canada were separated from the rest of their families still residing in China. The fee gradually increased over time and went up to $500 by 1903, an amount that was often unaffordable. The head tax against Chinese individuals only stopped when the Chinese Immigration Act was implemented in 1923, which made it very difficult for Chinese people to migrate to Canada. To put this into perspective, between 1923 and 1947, there were only approximately 12 to 50 Chinese newcomers. Despite the discrimination and exclusion that Chinese newcomers and their businesses faced in Canada, Chinese individuals overcame such obstacles by accommodating their businesses to serve a white Canadian customer base. For instance, Cantonese restaurants had to sweeten and deep fry their traditional dishes to appease white customers. Chinese advocates also helped push back against discriminatory bylaws and immigration acts. Jean Lumb, a business owner, activist and restaurateur, immigrated to Toronto in 1936. After opening a successful fruit store on Bathurst Street and St. Clair Avenue, she brought her parents and siblings over from Vancouver. Afterwards, she opened a lucrative restaurant called Kwong Chow Chop Suey House in 1959. Politicians, journalists and other important community members quickly became regulars. She was essential in the proliferation of Chinatown today because she could discuss Chinese culture and food through multiple media channels, which aided Canadians in forming positive perceptions of Chinese people. In 1965, after a significant chunk of Chinatown was demolished for the construction of the new City Hall and Nathan Phillips Square and there was discussion around further extraction, she was at the forefront of the Save Chinatown Committee. They were successful in preserving what is left of Chinatown today. Today, in the heart of downtown, Chinatown represents Toronto’s cultural diversity. It now includes businesses such as Vietnamese pho noodle shops, fusion restaurants, dessert cafés and Caribbean food.  The history of Chinatown proves how activists and business owners can truly change how marginalized people are treated in a community. By banding together, Canadians can continue to dismantle anti-Asian racism in and outside of the business sector. Supporting Chinatown businesses is imperative to maintaining a diverse community in Toronto where every business owner can feel comfortable sharing parts of their culture with others.

Canada is home to abundant natural resources, including the world’s fifth-largest coal and seventh-largest iron ore reserves. The nation ranks first for the world’s potash extraction and produces 2 billion tonnes of nickel, more than 700,000 tonnes of copper and roughly 320,000 tonnes of zinc annually. Mining in Canada has been deeply interwoven into the nation’s history and continues to be an important economic powerhouse. It contributes roughly five per cent to the country’s annual GDP and employs more than 690,000 workers. However, the industry has also faced significant criticism, including exploiting natural resources on Indigenous land and contributing to climate change and biodiversity loss. But with mining such a crucial part of Canada’s history, what will its future look like in the wake of growing climate change concerns?   Origins Many years before the arrival of European settlers, Indigenous people were mining minerals. There is evidence of an Indigenous copper trade in the Lake Superior region roughly 6,000 years ago. Between 700-1000 BCE, the Beothuk peoples, an Indigenous tribe, developed beds for chert to make arrowheads, knives and scrapers. Indigenous peoples were also mining silver in Cobalt, Ont., at least 200 years before Europeans. Mining exploration conducted by settlers goes back centuries. In 1672, settlers began to extract coal in Sydney, N.S. By the 18th century, the commercial mining industry started to emerge. The onset of the industry began in 1738 with the large-scale mineral exploration at St. Maurice Forges in Quebec. St. Maurice Forges was an ironworker facility fed by iron ore deposits at Trois-Rivières. In the mid-19th century, large coal deposits were discovered and mined on Vancouver Island. Dangers of early mining But, the early mining industry came with significant issues. Firstly, the land was colonized by European settlers and then exploited. Indigenous people lost their land and received no benefit from the industry. Secondly, the working conditions were dangerous and exploitative. Workers were expected to regularly work long shifts in darkness while breathing in hazardous dust. Child labour was also regularly used in coal mines until the 1920s, with children as young as eight years old working in dangerous conditions. Coal mining disasters occurred regularly between 1886 to 1987, with explosions being a major cause of these disasters. One of the worst occurred in 1914 in Hillcrest, Alta., when 189 workers died following an explosion in the mining tunnels, leaving behind 130 widows and 400 fatherless children. Precious metals and minerals As the industrial revolution led to new advancements in transportation and technology, precious metals and other minerals became available to Canadian and international mining companies, the most famous of which was the Klondike gold rush in Klondike, Yukon. On Aug. 17, 1896, gold was successfully prospected in the Klondike and Yukon rivers, and by 1897, more than 30,000 prospectors had moved to the area to attempt to mine gold. These 30,000 prospectors set up temporary settlements called boomtowns, which are settlements tied to rapid economic growth in an area. Some of these settlements became permanent features of the area, including Dawson City, Yukon. Mining methods used in the gold rush varied in complexity, ranging from crude and cheap to tech-heavy and industrial. One inexpensive method was dry washing, where gold dust was mined by hand, ground up and separated from the dust by throwing it into the air, allowing the finer dust particles to separate from the gold. A more technological, automated approach was dredging, where a chain was attached to several buckets and rotated on a belt system to dig into the earth and separate the gold automatically.  Environmental and social consequences of the Klondike gold rush were significant. Deforestation, erosion, aquatic ecosystem collapse and biodiversity loss were just a few consequences of resource exploitation. These activities scarred the land and Indigenous people of the area heavily, with many of the consequences still being felt today. What is the future of mining? The future of mining is complicated because minerals and metals are needed to sustain our current way of living. We use mined materials to produce essential items, including modern technology and medical devices. At the same time, mining contributes significantly to many of the world’s current problems. Mining has been linked to water and air pollution and biodiversity loss while causing permanent damage to the surrounding areas. Coal burning is the world’s largest electricity generation source and is responsible for 40 per cent of fossil fuel greenhouse gas emissions.  Mining has also affected Indigenous communities significantly throughout history. It has made these communities suffer the loss of their land, culture, resources and way of life. Canada must re-evaluate its relationship with the mining industry and how it impacts the environment and Indigenous communities. One element that needs particular attention is the country’s reliance on coal, a major source of fossil fuel emissions. To reduce Canada’s fossil fuel emissions, the government must keep its commitment to transition away from coal in favour of cleaner alternatives. Transitioning away from coal would also carry a financial benefit. According to the International Monetary Fund, the transition is estimated to potentially inject $78 trillion into the world economy. We will likely always need mining to sustain our modern world, but there are solutions to lessen the impact. Zero-waste mining is one solution. This involves mining companies utilizing every material extracted from the ground. In addition, the University of Western Australia explained that increased scientific understanding of mined materials is one key aspect to progress. At the same time, more efficient mining techniques would lead to less waste, less water consumption and purer materials. With purer materials, many extracted materials from the mining process can be successfully recycled. With growing pressures to work towards a greener and more equitable future, Canada needs to consider how it will balance the need for mined materials with the lowest impact possible. The ideas and technology already exist –– they just need to be implemented and used. Let’s transform the legacy of one of our most historical industries before it becomes

Marketing and advertising are used to influence and, in some cases, manipulate a broad audience. They also reflect the mindset of society during particular decades and often fluctuate based on societal shifts. As a result, advertising simultaneously communicates, creates and reinforces societal expectations. This is especially true for advertising directed toward women in the 20th century. Despite their milestones in the century, many advertisements attempted to force them into particular roles. However, as women gained more rights, some advertisements reflected these changes and achievements. Read ahead to learn how marketing toward women has evolved throughout the 20th century. World War I (1914-1918) During the First World War from 1914 to 1918, most propaganda by the Committee on Public Information’s Division of Pictorial Publicity depicted gender as binary and portrayed traditionally masculine and feminine traits that were popular at the time. To make women encourage their male partners to enlist, posters presented women as victims and under attack by the enemy. This established men as protectors, while women were portrayed as needing protection. On the other hand, other posters, especially from the Red Cross during World War I, empowered women by including visuals of them wearing nursing gear, attending to wounded soldiers on the battlefield and carrying soldiers on stretchers. Although the posters advertised women differently, they had the same goal: to influence women to take on a patriotic duty, either by allowing their husbands to serve in the war or by supporting the war effort as a nurse. The Great Depression (1930s) The lack of women in the marketing industry became apparent during the Great Depression. Advertisements depicted the female consumer as the white, middle-class housewife who was continuously impressionable and irrational regarding her purchasing habits. Meanwhile, men were portrayed as hard-working, rational consumers in comparison, thus making the ratio of eight male advertising agents for every female agent in the 1930s visible. The few women advertising agents were exclusively hired for beauty and household departments, further demonstrating the limitations placed on women during this time. World War II (1939-1945) The method of empowering women through advertising used during the First World War was repeated on a larger scale during the Second World War. Women had to work in previously male-dominated positions because men were expected to join the armed forces. Women worked in munitions factories and the textile, service and agriculture industries. This led to the emergence of female media icons such as Canada’s “Ronnie the Bren Gun Girl.” “Ronnie the Bren Gun Girl” became a female media icon when Veronica Foster was photographed in 1941 by the National Film Board (NFB) while working at the John Inglis Company in Toronto. The classic photograph that gave Foster the name depicted her wearing overalls and smoking a cigarette as she admired the Bren Gun she just assembled. Although this photograph successfully attracted women to factory work, the reason why the NFB selected this photo of Foster to represent Ronnie the Bren Gun Girl is telling. They wanted to prove that a female factory worker could still be attractive and desirable. Ronnie the Bren Gun Girl was so successful that it motivated the creation of the U.S.’s familiar media icon Rosie the Riveter in 1942. 1950s After the Second World War, advertising dramatically shifted as men settled back into the working sector. Depictions of women doing domestic work and taking the role of the housewife skyrocketed in marketing campaigns. Examples include a Joseph Schlitz Brewing Company’s 1950s ad stating, “Don’t worry darling, you didn’t burn the beer!” and a Hoover advertisement insisting that all women need a Hoover vacuum for Christmas. 1960s Marketing an obsession with cleanliness towards women continued into the early to mid-1960s. For instance, some advertisements depicted the evolution of women cleaning throughout different stages of their lives to influence women into purchasing cleaning products by placing the burden of housework on them. Common themes in such advertisements included using vibrant colours and depicting women enthusiastically cleaning and pleased with the state of their homes.  Height of the Women’s Liberation Movement (1970s) Despite the women’s liberation movement in North America during the 1960s and 70s, women were still depicted as performing duties within the home with seductive undertones rather than showing them outside and working. However, women persevered and expressed their disdain for such sexist representations. For instance, they demanded that advertisements show women in working roles since they represented nearly half of the workforce in the 70s. Women also wanted marketing campaigns to include men feeding babies to normalize men pursuing caretaking responsibilities. Marketing campaigns slowly started to respond to the women’s liberation movement and women’s demands for inclusive advertisements. This included advertising women with skinny cigarettes, less restrictive bras and lighter makeup to respond to shifting beauty standards. Marketing in Canada and the U.S. has represented and influenced women in ways aligned with the societal expectations of gender in a given decade. Only when society depended on women in the workforce were they depicted as capable, rational and strong. However, when society wanted women to do most of the domestic work to make room for men in the working sector, advertising firms romanticized cleanliness and the housewife role. By evaluating the history of how women were targeted in the marketing industry, it is clear that North America should discontinue sexist traditions in and outside the marketing world. After all, women like Veronica Foster were so much more than pretty faces –– they were heroes and should be presented as such.

Entrepreneurship is not typically associated with the field of medicine. Yet, integrating the two has led to much-needed innovations that have revolutionized and improved healthcare for millions. Many medical professionals have applied their ambition and creative visions to positively impact the medical field, including Canadian visionaries who have contributed to medical research for decades. Read ahead to learn about some of Canada’s most influential medical pioneers who brought vital inventions to the public. Dr. Henri Breault Dr. Henri Breault of Tecumseh, Ont., was a pediatrician and father of two. In the 1960s, more than 100,000 childhood drug poisonings were reported annually in Canada, resulting in more than 100 deaths. According to The Drive, Breault’s wife recalled the breaking point for her husband during an interview. After coming home from work at three in the morning, he said, “You know, I’ve had it! I am tired of pumping children’s stomachs when they’re taking pills that they shouldn’t be having! I’ve got to do something about it.” To start, Breault attempted a public health campaign with limited success. The failed public health campaign culminated in 1967 when Breault invented the Palm N’ Turn — a child safety device to fit on drug bottles that requires pushing down and turning the lid to open the container. The Palm N’ Turn was a resounding success and reduced child drug poisonings by 91 per cent. By 1974, Palm N’ Turns were mandatory on all drug bottles in Ontario and, soon after, throughout North America. Frederick Banting and Charles Best Building on decades of global research, Canadian visionaries at the University of Toronto extracted an insulin molecule from a pancreas in 1921. The discovery of this molecule has led to countless lives saved. According to Penn State University, It is viewed by experts as one of the most important breakthroughs of all time in treating diabetes. The discovery was not without its challenges. Surgeon Frederick Banting and University of Toronto medical student Charles Best, the researchers who spearheaded the discovery, had many obstacles to overcome. One obstacle was that their discovery could not be reproduced. This meant that although Banting and Best had isolated the molecule,  they could not do so reliably. In addition to the reliability issue, Banting and Best could not yet purify the insulin they extracted. James Collip and John Macleod, Canadian university professors, helped purify insulin, and soon enough, diabetic patients could receive this life-saving treatment. Millions of people worldwide have diabetes, many of whom are insulin dependent and can be treated thanks to the contributions of Banting, Best and other Canadian researchers. John Hopp Born in Winnipeg, Man., in 1919, John Hopp is renowned as the father of biomedical engineering. One of his most important and well-known inventions was the cardiac pacemaker. The cardiac pacemaker is a life-saving piece of equipment implanted in a person’s chest to help control their heartbeat. It is especially vital for people with an irregular heartbeat after a heart attack, drug poisoning or surgery. Pacemakers can improve a person’s quality of life without impacting their life expectancy. At the Banting Institute in Toronto, cardiac surgeons John Callaghan and Richard Bigelow were researching how to slow the heart down for open heart surgery. One option they were exploring was using hypothermia. However, this caused issues because the heart could not pump blood when cooled to these temperatures. Hopp, already well-established in biomedical engineering, was invited to the Banting Institute to assist in the research. His solution was introducing an electrical signal to the heart, which he discovered caused a contraction. From there, further iterations lead to Hopp building the first pacemaker prototype. Through Hopp’s prototype, the current version of the implantable cardiac pacemaker was created, leading to countless lives being saved and improved. Canadian inventors, global implications Thanks to these forward-thinking inventors, the impacts of these discoveries have been felt globally for many decades. Between saving lives and improving well-being, it is hard to overstate the importance of these medical advances. Without Breault, Banting, Best, Hopp and other Canadian inventors, many more people would suffer from treatable conditions.

The Bank of Montreal (BMO) is Canada’s oldest incorporated bank. It remains one of North America’s largest banks today, offering wealth management and personal, commercial and investment banking services.  Read ahead to learn more about BMO’s history from the early 19th century to today. Early history BMO was founded in 1817 in Montreal and was initially named Montreal Bank. It soon became the official banker for the Government of Lower Canada, an area that is now the southernmost part of Quebec. Montreal Bank quickly expanded outside of Lower Canada through associations with other banks in London, New York and Boston. Montreal Bank also opened offices in Quebec City and Kingston, Ont. Montreal Bank converted from a private company to a public company with over 100 shareholders in 1822. This is when the bank officially changed its name to the Bank of Montreal. In 1841, Upper and Lower Canada were united into the Province of Canada, and BMO became the official banker for the government in 1864. Expansion During Confederation in 1867, BMO opened branches in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, the first of its expansion into the Maritime provinces. BMO opened its first overseas branch in London, England, in 1870 due to the significant growth in Canada’s foreign trade. As the Canadian banking industry grew, BMO joined other Canadian banks in 1891 to create the Canadian Bankers Association. This group became the centre for any business conducted between Canadian banks. By the turn of the century, BMO had expanded to over 50 branches and more than 550 employees. BMO continued to grow by acquiring other banks, such as the Exchange Bank of Yarmouth, Nova Scotia, the People’s Bank of Halifax and the People’s Bank of New Brunswick. First World War As the Canadian government’s official banker, BMO played a significant role in financing the war effort during the First World War. BMO also aided the war effort in other ways. The bank’s Waterloo branch in London, England, became an unofficial headquarters for troops on leave. There, they could pick up mail from back home, recover with friends and fellow soldiers and still conduct their banking. With its efforts, BMO effectively became the bank of the Canadian Armed Forces. The Great Depression BMO took a significant hit to its business during the Great Depression, as the number of bank branches shrunk from 669 in 1929 to 567 in 1934. A new Canadian central bank, the Bank of Canada, was also created shortly afterward. This caused BMO to lose its position as the Canadian government’s official banker, meaning that BMO had lost its most prominent customer. Second World War The Second World War continued to take a toll on BMO’s business. While BMO peaked at 672 branches in 1930, this number dropped to 468  by 1943. After the war, BMO was able to begin regrowing. Around this time, the Canadian government started allowing banks to lend money to customers for real estate and small businesses. BMO was the first chartered bank to provide these services to clients in 1954. Further growth In 1998, BMO and Royal Bank of Canada (RBC) attempted to merge into a single bank to become more internationally competitive. However, the Canadian government did not allow this merger to occur, wanting to have two large banks instead of one. To compensate for the failed merger, BMO continued to expand its international operations on its own. The bank acquired several banks in the United States, such as Marshall & Ilsley, in 2010. BMO today BMO remains one of Canada’s largest and most well-known banks, having the fourth-highest revenue in 2020. The bank has over eight million Canadian clients and over 900 branches worldwide. BMO remains a reliable banker for many Canadians and other clients worldwide. Since its creation, BMO has not missed any dividend payments, making its payment history one of the longest in the world. BMO has consistently proven to be capable of handling its own business, standing the test of time as it continues to be one of Canada’s most popular and dependable banks.

Showcasing famous Canadian female entrepreneurs and milestones in women’s rights The evolution of women in Canadian businesses and workforces has a long history and continues to grow. To fully understand women’s successes in business, it is necessary to highlight the historical milestones. Additionally, it is essential to acknowledge the female entrepreneurs who paved the way for women to thrive in business today. Here is a 20th century timeline celebrating Canadian women in business. 1930The founding of The International Federation of Business and Professional Women The International Federation of Business and Professional Women is a network of female professionals. This network includes entrepreneurs, business owners, leaders and executives worldwide, including Canada. When founded in 1930 by Lena Madesin Phillips, it was the first organization to endorse the equal rights amendment. It continues to advocate for women’s economic independence whileand eliminating discrimination in the business sector. 1943-44The increase of women working during the peak of World War 2 During World War II (Sept. 1, 1939 – Sept. 2, 1945), Canadian women quickly moved into various jobs outside the domestic workforce. During the peak of World War II, lasting from 1943 totill 1944, 439,000 women worked in the service sector. Additionally, 373,000 women worked in manufacturing, 4,000 in construction and 261,000 in producing war goods. Thanks to women’s detail-oriented skills, munition and aircraft equipment used in World War II were always inspected before use. 1956One of the first Indigenous women in Canada to patent an invention In 1956, Olivia Poole, an Ojibwe woman, became one of the first Indigenous women in Canada to patent an invention. Poole patented the first Jolly Jumper, which is still massively produced and remains a common item in family homes. She began working on the design of the Jolly Jumper in 1910 when she had her first baby. The design was inspired by her memories of Indigenous peoples on the White Earth Reservation cradleboards to safely secure their babies. Using the concept of cradleboards, Poole invented a mechanism that allowed babies to bounce and entertain themselves while safely securing themed. 1970The founding of Beverly Mascoll’s iconic beauty supply company Before she founded the Beverly Mascoll Beauty Supply Company, Beverly Mascoll noticed a gap in beauty products for Black women in Canada. When Mascoll started her business, she only had $700 and sold products from the trunk of her car. Now, her products are distributed by the African-American-owned beauty manufacturer Johnson Products distributes her products. 1976The first Chinese woman and restaurateur celebrated by the Order of Canada Jean Lumb’s incredibly successful restaurant, Kwong Chow Chop Suey House, opened in Toronto’s Chinatown in 1959. Her restaurant was known for having significant political figures as regulars, which allowed her to appear on television and radio to advocate for the significance of Chinese food. Lumb also discussed anti-Asian racism and advocated for Chinese immigrant rights. In 1976, Lumb became a Member of This led to her being recognized by the Order of Canada for her extensive community work. 1977The creation of the Canadian Human Rights Act Even though women had contributed to the workforce for decades by the late 1970s, they still faced discrimination by employers based on their sex. However, this would change with the enactment of when the Canadian Human Rights Act. Under the act, employers and colleagues were prohibited from discriminating against women based on sex in any workplace. For instance, women could an no longer be excluded from receiving promotions based solely on sex. It also became illegal for women to be fired for being pregnant. 1986The adoption of the Employment Equity Act In 1983, the Royal Commission of Inquiry on Equality in Employment took place, leading to an official report. The report outlined how women, Indigenous Aboriginal peoples, people with disabilities and members of visible minority groups were having difficulty obtaining employment in Canada. This realization brought about the Employment Equity Act. The act states that individuals can only be denied employment based solely on their abilities, not their sex, culture, race or disability. This ensures proactive measures are taken to maintain equity in the Canadian workplace for the four vulnerable groups. 1988Claire Prieto co-founded the Black Film and Video Network Claire Prieto is a filmmaker passionate about increasing Black representation in Canadian film. In 1988, Prieto co-founded the Black Film and Video Network (BVFN). BVFN is a network described as a place where black filmmakers could express their identity and incorporate Black activism in film. Today, the BVFN continues to develop, produce and distribute art made by black filmmakers. The network’s continued success is thanks to Prieto for paving the way with her clear aims and objectives regarding Canadian film.

The Hudson’s Bay Company (HBC) is Canada’s oldest merchandising company. Established during the fur trade, the company has since expanded significantly. This expansion includesoperations in retail and other industries, such as real estate. Originally founded in London,England, the HBC headquarters are now in Toronto and New York.  Here is a brief look at the HBC from past to present. The beginning The HBC received a royal charter on May 2, 1670, with exclusive trading rights in Rupert’s Land. Rupert’s Land was a large region stretching from what is now Alberta to Quebec and into the Territories. The governor and committee in London set policies based on reports from officials in Hudson’s Bay and set up several trading posts across Rupert’s Land. Each post was led by a trader and a council of officers. Indigenous involvement Indigenous peoples trapped animals during the fall and winter before travelling to trading posts during the summer. Pelts were bartered for manufactured goods such as guns and textiles. Due to their involvement in the fur trade, many Indigenous peoples abandoned their traditional lifestyles to comply with trading practices. Many also began trapping outside their marked territories, sparking conflict between Indigenous groups. First taste of competition In 1713, France acknowledged England’s claim to Hudson Bay. HBC set up trading posts at the mouths of major rivers connected to the bay. Competitors began travelling further to trade with Indigenous people, bringing goods to them instead of making them travel out to the trading posts. In the late 1700s, the HBC faced major competition from the North West Company. The competition got so intense that both parties resorted to occasional physical violence. Conflict resolution HBC and the North West Company arranged a merger in 1821. The merger required both companies to combine their different business practices. Additionally, their land was divided into departments and further subdivided into districts. District managers would meet monthly in departmental council meetings supervised by a North American governor. The councils governed local trade according to the requirements of each district. At this time, the London governor and committee still had the power to overrule the decisions of the North American governor. The merger led the HBC to close unprofitable trading posts, heavily impacting Indigenous groups who had become reliant on the fur trade. Shifting priorities In 1863, the International Financial Society held most of the HBC’s voting stock. This caused a shift in the company’s priorities. The new shareholders were more interested in real estate than the fur trade. In 1870, the British sold Rupert’s Land to Canada. Much of this land was in or near developing urban centres. From the 1870s onwards, the HBC became a major real estate developer. Along with involvement in the fur trade and real estate, the HBC began partaking in the natural resource industry. In 1926, the HBC co-founded Hudson’s Bay Oil and Gas, though HBC later sold this to Dome Petroleum in 1982. Due to increasing business with settlers, the HBC split into three central departments in 1910: land sales, fur trade and retail. The fur trade department was renamed the northern stores department in 1959. In 1961, the land sales department was moved to a subsidiary company. Expansion and economic setbacks In 1970, Queen Elizabeth II gave the HBC a new charter which transferred company ownership from the United Kingdom to Canada. A new headquarters was established in Manitoba. The HBC continued to expand throughout the 1970s, acquiring some companies and becoming primary shareholders in others. In 1974, the corporate offices were moved to Toronto. The economic downturn in the 1980s caused the HBC to fall into significant debt.  As a result, non-retail business assets were sold in 1987. Expansion continued into the 1990s by acquiring chains such as K-Mart and Zellers. HBC in the 21st century To respond to the changing retail landscape, HBC began offering online shopping options in 2000. The company also began rebranding to make it more competitive. This rebranding strategy included offering more external brands, developing a wider product selection and utilizing contemporary branding approaches. Today, the HBC operates over 230 stores worldwide, 85 of which are in Canada. They offer a wide range of goods and services, and the company still invests in real estate. From its modest beginnings, HBC has risen to become one of Canada’s most respected retail companies and a well-known name across the country.

A century ago, the Ontario textile industry was thriving. A recent industry analysis shows the industry shrunk significantly between 2011 and 2015 in terms of workers, factories and mills. The government of Canada has not supplied a more recent industry analysis. Though, based on sales data, the industry was less valuable in 2021 than it was in 2015. There was a period of mid-decade growth, but the overall trend for that domestic production is downward.  These days, Ontario imports more textiles than exports. According to the World Bank, in 2019, Canada imported more than US $10 billion in textiles from five of its top suppliers. In contrast, that same year, the country only exported US$2.8 billion to its top five customers. This is a part of the tendency of Western nations to export manufacturing overseas where goods are cheaper to produce. Globalization has had outspoken mainstream opposition since the late ‘90s. Nonetheless, many consumers enjoy the lower prices for textile goods.  Before widespread globalization, the domestic textile industry produced enough goods for most of the country. At its height, the nation supplied 60 per cent of its own textile needs. Now, it only supplies a fraction of that number.  What is the history of the textile industry, and what led to its decline? The Métis textile industry Before settlers entered Canada, Métis people in Quebec and Ontario already had a rich weaving tradition. According to the Canadian Métis museum, these traditions involved finger weaving buffalo hair. They also involved weaving nettle fibre and hemp into usable textiles and baskets. When French colonists brought wool from overseas, the Métis people adopted wool into their weaving practices. One famous example of a wool garment made by the Métis is the Métis sash. French settlers of North America famously wore a colourful sash known as the assomption sash. This assomption sash was a prominent highlight on fur traders’ otherwise grey outfits. The Métis people took a liking to the sash and created the Métis sash. It was a softer and looser weave, at times incorporating splashes of beadwork.  According to the Métis Nation of Ontario, the Métis sash was made with a finger weaving technique. It had a wide variety of purposes aside from decoration. The sash could be used as rope, a key holder, a bandage and a washcloth. It could also be used as a sewing kit and a horse bridle. Métis craftspeople began selling and trading their sash to the Québécois and the Métis of Western Canada. The cottage weaving industry The Canadian Encyclopedia explains how, before industrialization, textiles were either imported or produced as a part of the cottage industry. The cottage industry consisted of hand-spinning yarn and hand-weaving textiles on a loom. After Loyalists settled in Ontario, flax was grown and sheep were raised to provide raw fibre. Some of the Loyalist settlers were professional weavers and many of the women knew how to spin yarn. Between the hand-spinners and weavers, local textiles were manufactured for their own use, and for sale and trade.  Because of the industrial revolution, some European immigrant weavers from Scotland, Ireland and Germany were out of work. So, they chose to come to Canada to work as farmers. When they arrived, they found they could continue in their profession of weaving.  The booming years The years between the 1820s and the early 1900s experienced a rapid expansion of the local textile industry. This was due to mass industrialization, according to Ingenium.  The first mills were wool mills, and by the mid-1800s, the industry grew to include almost 400 cotton mills. By the early 1900s, the industry had newly innovated knit goods and synthetic blends. The height of this time in the 1900s grew to a size of about 2,000 factories and mills. They spun, wove and knit their own fabric. At the peak of production, Canada produced 60 per cent of its domestic textile needs. The country met all of its military requirements for both world wars. The majority of the industry has always been in Ontario and Quebec. The decline Many of the top manufacturing industries in Canada began to shrink in the 1960s. This included textile goods.  During the 1940s and ‘50s, many of Canada’s trading partners focused on post-war rebuilding and restructuring. This allowed Canada to enjoy a greater global market share. However, after the powers had rebuilt, Japan, Europe and China emerged as global industrial leaders. The purchasing trends at this time focused on the cost of production. This meant that countries with lower operating costs were much more competitive in an increasingly globalized world.  Eventually, foreign economic powers began building textile mills and factories in countries with lower expenses than their own. Textile manufacturing is labour-intensive. So, investors were able to create cheaper textiles due to lower worker wages and an overall lower cost of production. The trend continues to the current era. The textile industry in Canada was one of the sectors most affected by globalization in the 21st century. Between 2004 and 2011, the industry’s jobs lessened by 60 per cent. Today, the country imports most of its textiles. Though the future is uncertain for the industry, it remains an important part of the Canadian economy. Ontario is at its centre, producing 46 per cent of all domestically-made textiles.